Elections - Social Science Class 9 In English

Chapter 7. Elections

Chapter Review

1. Meaning and Importance of Elections

Elections are one of the most important processes through which democratic rights are exercised. Regular and periodic elections lie at the core of a democratic system. Through elections, citizens choose representatives who make decisions on their behalf. Elected representatives are accountable to the people, and the right to elect representatives and hold them accountable is ensured through periodic elections.

An election is a process through which citizens exercise their right to vote and fulfil their responsibility as citizens. Elections provide citizens with an opportunity to participate in government formation and to express their political choices.

The chapter highlights several important purposes of elections, including:

• Representation – citizens choose representatives who act on their behalf.
• Accountability – elected representatives remain accountable to citizens.
• Legitimacy – elections provide democratic legitimacy to governments.
• Equality – elections provide citizens an opportunity to participate in the political process.

2. Direct and Indirect Elections

There are two broad methods of electing representatives or leaders:

Direct Elections: These are elections in which citizens directly vote to choose their representatives or leaders.

In India, members of the Lok Sabha, Vidhan Sabha and local bodies such as Panchayats and Municipal Corporations are elected through direct elections.

Indirect Elections: These are elections in which citizens elect representatives, and those representatives then choose or elect the leaders.

In India, the President, Vice President and members of the Rajya Sabha are elected through indirect elections.

3. Electoral System

An electoral system determines how votes are converted into seats in a legislature. The framers of the Indian Constitution discussed different electoral systems and chose the plurality system, also known as the First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) system for elections to the Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha.

Under the FPTP system, each voter votes for a candidate in their constituency. The candidate receiving the highest number of votes wins, even if the candidate receives less than 50 percent of the total votes polled.

India uses different electoral systems for different elections:

• Lok Sabha: First-Past-The-Post system.
• Vidhan Sabha: First-Past-The-Post system.
• Rajya Sabha: Proportional Representation.
• President: Proportional Representation.
• Vice President: Proportional Representation.
• Vidhan Parishad: Proportional Representation by means of a Single Transferable Vote.

4. First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) System

In the First-Past-The-Post system, voters vote for individual candidates in their constituencies. The candidate who receives the highest number of votes wins the election.

For example, if three candidates receive 40%, 35% and 25% of the votes respectively, the candidate receiving 40% wins because they have received the highest number of votes.

5. Majority System

In a majority system, a candidate must receive more than 50 percent of the votes to win. If no candidate receives more than 50 percent in the first round, the leading candidates may compete in another round.

The chapter illustrates this system through the imaginary country Ratnadweep. If no candidate receives more than 50 percent in the first round, the top two candidates compete again, and the candidate securing more than 50 percent in the second round wins.

6. Proportional Representation

In the proportional representation system, voters vote for a party rather than an individual candidate in the manner illustrated in the chapter. Seats in the legislature are allotted in proportion to the total votes received by the parties.

This system is used in India for elections to the Rajya Sabha and for the elections of the President and Vice President. Elections to the Vidhan Parishad are conducted through proportional representation by means of a Single Transferable Vote.

7. Single Transferable Vote System

The chapter explains the process of the Single Transferable Vote system through the following steps:

1. Voters mark their preferences.
2. First-preference votes are counted.
3. Candidates who receive the required quota are declared elected.
4. The candidate receiving the lowest votes is eliminated.
5. The votes of the eliminated candidate are transferred according to the second preferences marked on the ballot papers.
6. The process continues until the required number of candidates are elected.

8. Electoral Laws in India

The chapter discusses important laws governing elections in India. These include:

• Representation of the People Act, 1950 (RPA, 1950)
• Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RPA, 1951)
• Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952

The Representation of the People Act, 1950 mainly deals with allocation of seats, delimitation of constituencies, preparation and revision of electoral rolls, and voting rights for citizens aged 18 years and above without discrimination.

The Representation of the People Act, 1951 deals with other aspects of conducting elections and post-election disputes. It includes rules concerning nomination of candidates, election campaigns, voting procedures and resolution of disputes.

Together, these laws help maintain the integrity, transparency and accountability of India's electoral process.

9. Electoral Offences and Corrupt Practices

The Representation of the People Act, 1951 identifies certain electoral offences and corrupt practices.

Examples discussed in the chapter include:

• Giving a gift, offer or promise to influence a person to contest, withdraw, vote or refrain from voting.
• Appealing to people to vote or refrain from voting on the basis of religion, caste, race, community or language.
• Taking prohibited assistance in favour of a candidate from government-related personnel such as gazetted officers, judges, magistrates, armed forces personnel, police personnel and excise officers.

10. Delimitation

Delimitation is the process of determining the number of seats and fixing the territorial boundaries of constituencies for elections to the Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha.

The boundaries of constituencies are not permanently fixed because population density changes over time. Delimitation aims to keep the ratio of seats to population as close to equal as possible across constituencies.

Article 82 of the Constitution provides for the establishment of a Delimitation Commission.

The chapter mentions four Delimitation Commissions—in 1952, 1963, 1973 and 2002.

11. Election Commission of India

The Election Commission of India (ECI) is an autonomous permanent constitutional body responsible for the superintendence, direction and control of the entire process of conducting elections.

The ECI was established on 25 January 1950. Articles 324 to 329 of the Constitution provide for the establishment of the ECI and define its powers and duties.

The ECI conducts elections to:

• Lok Sabha
• Rajya Sabha
• Vidhan Sabha
• Vidhan Parishad
• President
• Vice President

12. Major Functions of the ECI

The Election Commission performs several important functions to ensure the proper conduct of elections.

Preparation and Revision of Electoral Rolls: The ECI prepares electoral rolls for constituencies. Only persons whose names appear on the electoral roll are allowed to vote. The ECI also conducts Special Intensive Revision (SIR) to update, verify and correct electoral rolls.

SIR aims to ensure that eligible citizens are not left out and ineligible persons are not included. It can also remove names because of death, change of residence, duplicate enrolment or permanent untraceability.

Election Schedule: The ECI decides the election schedule and dates. While doing so, it considers factors such as weather conditions, agricultural cycles, school and university examinations and festivals.

Registration and Recognition of Political Parties: The ECI registers political parties and classifies them as recognised national or state/regional parties or registered-unrecognised parties according to specified criteria.

Allocation of Election Symbols: The ECI allocates election symbols and also acts as a quasi-judicial body in disputes relating to recognition of political parties and allotment of symbols.

Conduct of Elections: The ECI oversees nominations, campaigns, polling, counting of votes and declaration of election results.

13. Making Elections Free, Fair and Inclusive

For elections to have democratic value, they must be conducted in a free, fair, transparent, inclusive, impartial and trustworthy manner.

Merely conducting an election is not sufficient. Citizens must be able to exercise their right to vote without unfair obstacles or undue influence.

The chapter discusses initiatives to make elections more inclusive, particularly for:

• Persons with Disabilities (PwDs)
• Senior Citizens
• Transgender persons
• Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)

During the 2024 General Elections, voting from home was extended across India for senior citizens above 85 years of age and persons with disabilities with a benchmark disability of 40%.

14. Digital Initiatives in Elections

The ECI uses technology and digital applications to facilitate electoral services.

ETPBS: Electronically Transmitted Postal Ballot System enables service voters to receive and cast postal ballots electronically from outside their originally assigned constituency.

Voter Helpline App: Provides various voter services including registration, transposition and verification, along with election-related information and updates.

cVIGIL App: Enables voters to report violations of the Model Code of Conduct and election misconduct.

ERONET: Facilitates processing of forms, databases and maintenance of electoral rolls.

Sugam: Helps manage vehicles used for election work.

Suvidha: Provides services to contesting candidates and political parties, including nomination-related forms and permissions for meetings, rallies, vehicles and loudspeakers.

Saksham App: Provides customised services to Persons with Disabilities, including assistance with registration and finding polling stations.

15. Inclusive Voting Measures

The chapter presents the idea of “No Voter to Be Left Behind”. The ECI has taken measures to make voting more accessible.

The chapter shows examples such as EVMs with Braille and voting from home for senior citizens. These measures aim to enable more citizens to participate in elections.

India's electoral exercise involves more than 96.8 crore eligible voters as mentioned in the chapter for 2024. The ECI manages elections across diverse regions and terrains and uses information and communication technologies and e-governance for several electoral functions.

16. National Voters' Day

25 January is celebrated every year as National Voters' Day.

The voters' pledge emphasises faith in democracy, democratic traditions, free, fair and peaceful elections, and voting without being influenced by considerations such as religion, race, caste, community, language or inducement.

17. Political Parties

Political parties are essential to a democratic system. They help citizens understand candidates, policies, development visions and positions on social, economic, cultural and political issues.

Political parties perform several important functions:

• Organise public opinion.
• Campaign on specific issues.
• Offer voters meaningful choices.
• Enable voters to make informed decisions.
• Prepare election manifestos.
• Contest elections.
• Form governments when they win.
• Formulate and implement policies.
• Ensure accountability when functioning as opposition.
• Participate in debates and committees.

18. Multi-Party System in India

India has a multi-party system, meaning that many political parties exist and compete in elections. The chapter connects this system with India's diversity of languages, cultures, religions and regions.

Political parties may be recognised as national parties, state parties or remain registered-unrecognised political parties according to specified criteria.

19. Defection and Anti-Defection Law

Defection refers to abandoning or switching from the political party under whose banner a candidate was elected. It may involve joining another party or acting independently of party decisions, particularly in legislative voting.

The chapter also notes that defection may be viewed differently: in the context of party discipline and political stability, it may be considered political opportunism, while in another context it may be viewed as following one's conscience or responding to changing public expectations.

The Anti-Defection Law was passed in 1985 through the 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act. Its purpose is to prevent defection and provide stability to elected governments.

Under the law, a member of Parliament or a State Assembly may be disqualified if the member voluntarily gives up party membership or votes against the party's instructions (whip), subject to the provisions of the law. The Speaker or Chairman of the House decides such cases.

20. Recognition of Political Parties

The Election Commission recognises political parties according to specified criteria.

For State Party Recognition, the chapter provides several alternative conditions involving vote percentages and seats won in State Assembly or Lok Sabha elections.

For National Party Recognition, the chapter provides alternative conditions involving vote percentages and seats across multiple states, or recognition as a State Party in at least four states.

Registered Unrecognised Political Parties (RUPP) include parties that have not secured the required percentage of votes and parties that have never contested elections since their registration.

21. Alliances and Coalition Governments

The chapter notes that 1967 witnessed the end of the era of single-party dominated elections and the beginning of an era of alliances in various states.

In 1977, various political parties formed an alliance as the Janata Party in the backdrop of the National Emergency of 1975–1977. The Janata Party formed the first coalition government at the national level, popularly known as the Janata Government.

The chapter also discusses major political alliances in Indian elections since the late 1990s, including the NDA and the UPA and its subsequent reconstitution as the Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance.

22. Challenges to Free and Fair Elections

Conducting elections in India is a large and complex task because of the huge number of voters, thousands of polling stations, hundreds of political parties and diverse geographical and socio-economic conditions.

The chapter identifies challenges such as:

• Misinformation
• Fake news
• Intimidation
• Problems related to accessibility
• Ensuring accurate counting and trustworthy electoral processes

These challenges can affect public confidence and the democratic value of elections if not properly addressed.

23. Measures to Address Electoral Challenges

The Election Commission addresses electoral challenges through various laws, rules and technological measures. The chapter mentions:

• Representation of the People Act, 1950
• Representation of the People Act, 1951
• Model Code of Conduct
• Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs)
• Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT)
• Voter awareness campaigns
• Technology-assisted electoral services
• Active citizen participation and vigilance

24. Role of Citizens in Elections

Citizens have an important role in making elections meaningful. Voting is presented in the chapter as both a constitutional right and a responsibility of citizens.

Citizens should participate in elections responsibly, remain informed about candidates and issues, and avoid being influenced by considerations such as religion, race, caste, community, language or inducement.

Active citizen participation, awareness and vigilance can contribute to elections that are more representative and to a stronger democratic system.

25. Elections and Democracy

Elections are described in the chapter as being at the core of democracy because they provide citizens with an equal opportunity to participate in the formation of government.

However, democracy requires more than merely holding elections. The electoral process must also be free, fair, transparent, inclusive, impartial and trustworthy. Institutions such as the Election Commission, electoral laws, political parties, citizens and other stakeholders all have roles in maintaining the democratic character of elections.

Chapter Summary

Chapter 7, “Elections”, explains why periodic elections are essential for democracy and how electoral systems convert votes into representation. It introduces direct and indirect elections, the First-Past-The-Post system, majority system and proportional representation. It explains the major electoral laws, delimitation, the functions of the Election Commission of India, electoral rolls, Special Intensive Revision, election symbols and measures for inclusive voting.

The chapter also explains the role of political parties, India's multi-party system, defection and the Anti-Defection Law, recognition of national and state parties, and political alliances. Finally, it discusses challenges such as misinformation, fake news and intimidation and highlights the importance of laws, institutions, technology, vigilance and active citizen participation in ensuring free and fair elections.